Showing posts with label Education. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Education. Show all posts
Thursday, February 16, 2012
Statistika dasar
Statistika adalah metode ilmiah yang mempelajari bagaimana merencanakan, mengumpulkan, menganalisis, menginterpretasi, dan mempresentasikan data. Singkatnya, statistika adalah ilmu yang berkenaan dengan data.
Istilah ’statistika’ (bahasa inggris: statistics) berbeda dengan ’statistik’ (statistic). Statistika merupakan ilmu yang berkenaan dengan data, sedang statistik adalah data, informasi, atau hasil penerapan algoritma statistika pada suatu data.
Kata Statistik juga diartikan sebagai suatu ukuran yang dihitung dari sekumpulan data dan merupakan wakil dari data itu.
Misal :
- Rata-rata berat telur bebek di pasar Kebumen adalah 80 gram
- 90% mahasiswa AMIK PGRI Kebumen angkatan 2005/2006 bekerja sambil kuliah
- Mulai tahun 2000 angka pengangguran di Kab. X meningkat lebih besar dari 5%
Selain sebagai kumpulan data, statistik juga dipakai untuk melakukan berbagai analisis data, peramalan(forecasting), melakukan uji hipotesis dan kegunaan-kegunaan lainnya, sehingga statistik yang sering digunakan untuk hal-hal tersebut disebut dengan Ilmu Statistik.
Aplikasi Ilmu Statistik dibagi menjadi dua bagian, yaitu :
1. Statistis Deskriptif, dan
2. Statistik Inferensial / Induktif
Wednesday, February 15, 2012
Learners progress
Understanding the development and growth
Development
some opinions:
- Ussen Santrock (1992)
The development of an individual pattern of development that begins at the time of conception and continues throughout life and is involution.
- E. B. Hurlock
The development of a series of progressive changes that occur as a result of the maturity and experience, and consists of a series of changes which are qualitatively and quantitatively.
- Drs. H. M. Arifin, M. Ed
Perkembanagn the changes in the shape of the body and integration and can be seen only the symptoms.
- Gut and Rohana Kusumawati Windarsih
The development is a process towards a more mature state is qualitative.
- Werner (1957)
Developments in line with the principle orthogenetis, that development proceeds from the global and less differentiated state to a state of Diman differentiation, articulation, and integration of a gradual increase.
- Nagel (1957)
The development is a sense in which the structures are organized and have certain functions, therefore when there is a change in both organizational structure and in form, will result in changes in function.
- Schneirla (1957)
The development is the progressive changes in the organization of organisms, and organisms are viewed as an adaptive system throughout his life.
- Spiker (1966)
Developments related to two things:
1) Ortogenetik, which is associated with the development since the establishment of a new individual, and so on into adulthood.
2) Phylogenetics, namely the development of human origins until today.
- Libert, Paul, and Strauss (Singgih, 1990:31) €
The development is a process of change in growth at a time as a function of maturity and environment interactions.
- Monks (1984)
The development can be described as an eternal process and keep heading in the direction of an organization at a higher level of integration, based on the growth process, kemetangan and learning.
Some understanding of the above can be concluded
Development of a progressive pattern of change in organisms in both the structure and function (physical atapun psychological) qualitative and quantitative which takes place regularly since the time of conception and lasts until the end of life, based on the growth, maturity, experience, and learning.
Growth
The following terms of growth, according to some experts:
- Werner
Growth is a physiological change as a result of the maturation process of physical functions that normally take place in healthy children at the noemal.
- Drs. H. M. Arifin, M. Ed
Growth is an increase in the size, shape, weight or size dimensif body and its parts.
- The book's development and learning of students.
Growth is the change in physical and quantitative aspects and evolution.
- Gut and Rohana Kusumawati Windarsih
Growth is an increase in size (volume, mass, and height) of the living thing that beresifat quantitative and irreversible.
Some understanding of the above can be concluded that:
Pertumbunhan is a pattern of change in the physical processes that are quantitative in living things.
So understanding pertumbuhantercakup in terms of development, but not vice versa.
Aspects of growth and development of the individual is:
A. Physical growth
a. Growth before birth (the time of conception)
b. Growth after birth
2. Intellect
3. Emotion
4. Social
5. Language
6. Special talent
7. Attitudes, values, and moral
I. Factors that influence the development is
1. Intelligence
2. Temperament
3. Descendants of interaction environment and development
II. Children as a totality
The concept of the child contains the following three terms:
1. Children are the living things (organisms) which is a unity of all of the aspects contained in his
2. In the life of the child's development, all aspects of the child are intertwined with each other.
3.Children differ from adults not only physically, but as a whole.
As a totality of the child is seen as makhl; uk whole life-that is, as an integral part of the overall physical and psychological aspects in him that can not be separated from each other.
The concept of children as totalitasnatau unity implies that there is mutual entanglement or linkages between all aspects of the present in children. All aspects of self-contained in an integrated child intertwined and mutually supporting each other functionally.
Examples are:
1. Children who are sick can heat other memjadi behavior.
2. An angry child can bawling
3. Children who are shy rosy cheeks.
4. Children who are active in active physical activity can also mental activity.
Children tend to be dominated by a mindset that is egisentrik.
Thought the child was still confined to concrete things.
Child as a totality yaitusebagai individual organism is an integrated unity of the whole organ of physical and psychological aspects that are on himself interwoven with each other.
III. As the development process from the aspect of Holistic Biological, Cognitive, Social and Psychosocial.
In accordance with the concept of children as a totality or as individuals, as well as the development is a process that are holistic (overall). That is, development that occurs not only in certain aspects, but involves all of the aspects that are intertwined (interwoven) to one another.
What is meant by developmental psychologists to individuals?
According to Santrock and Yussen (1992)
The development of complex movement patterns because merupaka results (products) from several processes:
a. Biological processes
This process includes individual physical changes.
Reflection of the role of biology in the development process consists of:
1 genes inherited from parents
2 The development of the brain
3 The addition of height and weight
4 motor skills
5 hormonal changes at puberty
b. Cognitive Processes
This process includes the changes that occur in induvidu of thought, intelligence and language.
Reflection of the role of cognitive processes in child development seabgai include the following:
1 Observe the movement of the hanging toys
2 Linking two words into a sentence
3 Memorizing poetry, poems, and prayer
4 Solving math problems
Difference between cognitive development with a change in the sense of learning.
- Cognitive development refers to the important changes in the pattern and thinking skills and language proficiency.
- Learning tends to be limited to the changes as a result of the experiences or events that are relatively specific.
Cognitive developments of children and the learning experience is very closely linked and mutually influence each other.
Children's cognitive development will facilitate children's learning ability, and vice versa.
c. The process of social / psychosocial
This process includes the changes that occur in individual relationships with others, changes in emotions, changes in personality as well as changes in feelings.
Reflection of the role of social processes in perkembangananak are as follows:
1 The development of self and identity crises that accompany the development of Carra and relationships with family members, peers, teachers, and others.
2 baby's smile in response to touch her mother
3 aggressive boys for playmates
4 Awareness of a girl on the environment.
Changes in development is a product of biological processes, cognitive, and social.Processes that occur in human development that took place in the overall life cycle and is called as peroses holistic development of all three aspects.
The development is divided by elapsed time as the phase of the human.
Santrock and Yussen split over five phases, namely:
1. Pre-natal phase (in the womb)
Is located between the time of conception and the birth
2. Baby Phase
Is the current developments taking place from birth to 18 atau24 months, this period is highly dependent on the parents.
3. Early Childhood phase (pre school)
Is a developmental phase that lasted from late infancy until 5 or 6 years.
4. Childhood phase of the middle and end (the primary school age)
Is a developmental phase that lasted from about kiora 6 to 11 years
5. Phase Teens
Developments is that a transition period from childhood to early adulthood, which began about purse ages 10 to 12 years and beakhir about the age of 18 to 22 years.
Entanglement of biological processes produce cognitive and social development phases.
IV. Maturity and experience in Child Development
Maturity (maturation) is a sequence of changes experienced by the individual on a regular basis as determined by genetic design (and Yussen Santrock, 1992:20)
Maturity is seen as an innate (nature), namely as a biological organism inherited inborn.
Experience (experience) are the events experienced by individuals in interacting with the environment.
Experience is seen as an element of the environment (nurture), ie, as received by the individual environmental experiences in life.
The developmental psychologists emphasize the element of maturity or disposition (maturations) claim biological inheritance as the most affecting elements of child development.
The experts who prioritize elements of the experience or environment (nurture) considers the experiences of evironmental as the most important factor in child development.
Wherever a person's life he will:
1. Sit
2. Run
3. Speak.
The maturationists recognize that extreme environmental conditions that can cause disruption to the child's development, but they believe that the basic trends of growth and development of the individual has a genetic pattern.
The environmentalitas stressed the importance of experience in child development. Pass on the basis of individual genetic elements, how it grows and develops depends on:
1. Food
2. Nutrient
3. Medical Care
4. Exercise
5. Education provided by the environment.
The interactionists believe that almost all of the physical and psychological qualities of individuals is the result of innate and environmental influences.
For example:
1. Child's height depends on the genetic design derived from its parents (nature),
2. Child's height is also dependent on nutrition and exercise obtained during the growth process (environment)
3. Cognitive development of children depends on the degree of intelligence possessed (carriage)
4. Development of cognition terrgantung on the quality of the learning experience gained during his life (environment)
5. Children are biologically programmed to learn language (carriage)
6. Children will only learn the language he heard (the environment)
V. Continuity and Discontinuity in Development
Continuity
The experts who emphasize the continuity in terms of (continuity) in the development it is clear that the development of cumulative changes that take place in stages from the time of conception until death.
The development is the gradual nature of change and the accumulation of perolaku and the same personal qualities that have been obtained previously.
In this process occurs enrichment, addition, and subtraction through individual experience or interaction with the environment.
For example:
1. Child's behavior or obtain additional new skills, and mengkonbinasikan and menggkombanisasi back behavior or skills with existing ones to produce behavioral or abilitas increasingly complex.
2. Children could only utter a syllable, then one word, two words, three words, up to a thousand words.
So this model emphasizes kuantutatif changes, ie the elements that already exist and have essentially simplified the addition of new elements and the ability to produce more complex behaviors.
Discontinuity
The experts stressed in terms of discontinuity (discontinuity) dalamperkembangan assume that the individual development process involves different stages.
Each individual development are considered through a pattern of sequence changes that are qualitatively different, not just quantitatively different.
Individuals considered to take place through the development of behavioral changes abruptly from stu phase to the next (relatively sharp transition events).
The experts who support the discontinuity view is usually assumed that in principle the development is directed by internal biological factors.
As an example of qualitative differences (discontinuities) is a description of the developmental stages of Jean Piaget thought children as follows:
a. Sensory motor stage (0; 0-2; 0)
Intellectual activity at this stage includes symptoms entirely inihampir received directly through the senses.
b. Pre-operational stage (2: 0-7; 0)
At this stage of development is very rapid.
c. Concrete operational stage (7: 0-11; 0)
Ability to think logically appear at this stage. They can think systematically to achieve solutions to problems. At this stage the problems faced are concrete.
d. Formal operational stage (11: 0-15; 0)
This stage is characterized by patterns of thinking adults. They can apply to all categories of thought to the problems of both abstract and concrete. At this stage the child is able to think his thoughts, can form ideas, thinking about the future realistically.
Phase-tahapperkembangan think the child is not merely describe an increase in the ability to think, but more than that there are significant qualitative differences between the following phases,
With regard to the issue kotinuitas and discontinuity, Emde and Harmon (Vasta, Haith & Miller, 1992) explains that the problem involves two components of the debate.
1) Issues involving the explanation of the patterns of development.
- The continuity theorists believe that the development took place in a smooth and stable through the addition or gradual increase in abilitas, skills, and / or new knowledge on a relatively equal steps.
- The experts considered that the development of a discontinuity occurs in periods different speeds, alternating between periods of only a few changes with periods of sharp and rapid changes
2) Pedebatan these developments with respect to linkage.
- The continuity theorists argue that early behaviors together to build and shape subsequent behaviors or at least the early developments that have an attachment with further developments.
- The experts claim that some aspects of discontinuity arose independently of the development of what has come before and can not be predicted from previous behaviors.
Adult Education
Education (education) is not equal to the school (schooling). Schools are part of education or learning activities. Schools are generally geared for children's education (kindergarten, primary school) and youth (Junior - Senior High School) College. Adult education is generally carried out in non-formal education, which can be done in the workplace, the community in the form of thin or coaching.
Adult education can be done independently (self education) are not dependent on the educational institutions that make up the educational program.
2-4 years is the golden era (golden age) the era of rapid changes in intelligence (IQ) of children this age can quickly develop IQ, to 80% in the USA 4 years.
Lifelong Education, learning to do from birth to death.
Definition (Limits Definition)
Adult Education (Adult Education)
A. → Education can be done by learning (Learning), but also often considered to be the same.
All educational activities involving the study but not all learning activities melbatkan education.
Education has always contained elements of activities designed (designed) and deliberate, with the aim of dtetapkan. While learning to walk or do incidentally, are not designed, and in a very short time.
In adult education can be done by self education where educational activities can be learned by self-directed.
On self-education that occurs in adults, objectives, materials, methods, self-directed learning; adults can already be responsible for the education or learning activities.
2. Adults (Adult) there are limits understanding of adults who are often confused.
Adults can be seen in terms of biological, psychological, and social.
Biologically mature refers to the biological development, generally associated with readiness for reproduction. The problem, one is often been considered to be biologically an adult, but not necessarily psychologically mature. Generally associated with adult psychological mental ability to take responsibility for the decision / choice.
Adult Social generally associated with the ability to perform social roles (social) as parents of children in work organization leaders and others.
Understanding
Adult Education is a process whereby people who already have a social role as an adult learning activities in a systematic and sustained in order to make changes in knowledge, attitudes, values, and skills.
Some of the functions / duties performed in the POD (Adult Education)
The tasks to be done in the organization of POD are:
1. Duties as a teacher (facilitator)
2. Task as a developer program (Program Developer)
3. Duties as manager (administration)
4. Duties as a counselor (Conselor)
Purpose of POD
Adult Education generally has an adult target group of diverse, well age, level of education.Social environment, learning and others. Functional literacy education for example (Functional Literacy program) belajrnya adult citizens who enter illiterate and often consist msikin economy. Education was coaching in the industry / perkantiran residents are learning that the workers and the nature of education is generally high enough dn tingat economic conditions quite well.
POD goal thus varied according to the problem, and the target. Generally, there are several objectives:
1.POD goal for developers of intelligence / intellectual people learn,
2.POD for the actualization of the goals indvidu participants learn
3.POD for the purpose of personal and social development of citizens to learn
4.POD for the purpose of social change (public)
5.POD for the purpose of human resource development in work organizations (organizational effectiveness)
POD program
The program is widely defined an activity bekajar (curriculum) that drancang by an agency (institution) which digunaan for students to follow learning activities in accordance with the purpose of education (learning) set.
For example, tailoring special programs for students after completion of the program to enter the workforce in the industry convection or establish their own businesses such as boutiques or suturing.
Institutions or agencies that make up the POD program include:
1. Institute courses
2. Education & Training Centre (training centers, labor; BLK)
3. Learning centers (SKB)
4. BPKB (Learning Activities Development Agency)
5. BPPNFI (Non-Formal Education Development Agency - Informal)
6. Center for Community Learning Activities (PKBM)
7. Higher Education (Educational Extension Program)
8. Education & Training in the Corporate / Office.
Turbo Pascal
Turbo Pascal adalah sebuah sistem pengembangan perangkat lunak yang terdiri atas kompiler dan lingkungan pengembangan terintegrasi (dalam bahasa inggris: Integrated Development Environment - IDE) atas bahasa pemrograman pascal untuk sistem operasi CP/M, CP/M-86, dan MS-DOS, yang dikembangkan oleh Borland pada masa kepemimpinan Philippe Kahn. Nama Borland Pascal umumnya digunakan untuk paket perangkat lunak tingkat lanjut (dengan kepustakaan yang lebih banyak dan pustaka kode sumber standar) sementara versi yang lebih murah dan paling luas digunakan dinamakan sebagai Turbo Pascal. Nama Borland Pascal juga digunakan sebagai dialek spesifik Pascal buatan Borland.
Borland telah menembangkan tiga versi lama dari Turbo Pascal secara gratis disebabkan karena sejarahnya yang panjang khusus untuk versi 1.0, 3.02, dan 5.5 yang berjalan pada sistem operasi MS-DOS.
Wikipedia
Contoh program dan syntac
Mathematica
Mathematica adalah program komputer yang dikembangkan oleh Stephen Wolfram melalui lembaga Wolfram Research di Champaign, Illinois, Amerika Serikat untuk keperluan bidang matematika, statistika, dan ilmu pengetahuan teknik.
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